The Mongols: 1200-1500

     The Mongol empire encompassed a majority of Eurasia, making in the largest land-based empire in all of human history. Although the Mongols were great conquerors, their origins lay in pastoral people. Their culture differed from that of other civilizations at the time. A Franciscan friar William of Rubruck, observed the Mongol women during the mid 13th century. Men and women in Mongol society had set roles and traditions. In a house, the men's side faced west and the women's east. The men also never hung bows on the women's side, maybe as a sign of respect or women were not expected to be associated with weapons. Women had many domestic duties, William wrote "It is the duty of the women to drive the carts, get the dwellings on and off them, milk the cows, make butter and gruit [sour curd], and to dress and sew skins, which they do with a thread made of tendons. They divide the tendons into fine shreds, and then twist them into one long thread. They also sew the boots, the socks, and the clothing. They never wash clothes, for they say that God would be angered, and that it would thunder if they hung them up to dry. They will even beat those they find washing [their clothes]..they never wash their bowls, but when the meat is cooked they rinse out the dish in which they are about to put it with some of the boiling broth from the kettle, which they pour back into it. They [the women] also make the felt and cover the houses." (pg 495) 

When it comes to marriages, girls lived with their families until the man "buys them." Remarrying a widow was not an option as their beliefs stated that the widow would be reunited with her first husband after death. Polygamy was accepted among the Mongol culture where the wives were treated well. In the event that a husband would die, the son would take on his father's wives, except for his own mother. Compared to other cultures at the time, the Mongols seemed fairly radical and different which could be the reason for William's report of these people. 

Traditional Mongol women clothing 

High Middle Ages: 1000-1300 the expansion of Europe

     During this point in history, the Latin West began to not only change, but expand greatly. The former Roman empire began to die out being replaced by new kingdoms. Invasions across the west lead by Vikings, Muslims, and Magyar. These societies eventually settled many converting to Christianity. Between 1000 to 1340 the population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million. "With more people, many new lands were opened for cultivation in a process paralleling China’s expansion to the south at the same time. Great lords, bishops, and religious orders organized new villages on what had recently been forest or wasteland. Marshes were drained in many regions, and land was reclaimed from the sea, especially along the North Sea coast." (Ways of the World pg 364) Economic growth and urbanization supplied women with new opportunities. Urban professions for women included weaving, brewing, milling grain, midwifery, and spinning. In England females were given the rites to apprenticeships. Women were heavily invested in crafts and trades at this time. " In Frankfurt, about one-third of the crafts and trades were entirely female, another 40 percent were dominated by men, and the rest were open to both." (Ways of the World pg 364) This was short lived though, by the fifteenth century opportunities for women began to fade. Guild regulation restricted women's work and could no longer participate in the artisan opportunities of the past. 

During this time there was also a large spread of Christianity. This brought about change as well. Women had the ability to become nuns, but restricted in comparison to men within the religion. As a revolt against this strict religious life,  some women joined a group of laywomen called the Beguines who worked outside the church doing good deeds, caring for he poor, acting as a sisterhood might act today. 

"Thus tightening male control of women took place in Europe as it did in Song dynasty China at about the same time. Accompanying this change was a new understanding of masculinity, at least in the growing towns and cities. No longer able to function as warriors protecting their women, men increasingly defined themselves as “providers”; a man’s role was to brave the new marketplaces “to win wealth for himself and his children.” (Ways of the World pg 364)

Depiction of religious woman during the High Middle Ages

Early Islam gender roles: 570-650

     Early Islam gave rise to unequal gender roles, where women were inferior and subordinate to men, as in accordance with the Quran. This led to many issues like female infanticide (now forbidden for Muslims), unequal rights such as men allowed to have multiple wives, while women were not allowed to have multiple husbands. Sexual relationships were also unequal. Men were permitted to have sex with female slaves, but if a woman were to engaged in any sexual taboo "honor killing" was allowed as well as clitoridectomy which is where the females genitals would be cut. Although this occurred in the Islamic world, it was not limited to this and practiced across the world at the time and even still today. 
     Branches off of mainstream Islam, like the Sufi, shared different views. Given equal treatment, women in Sufi orders were able to practice alongside men. Rabia was a well known early Sufi practitioner (and Sufi saint). She freely debated with men and denied many marriage proposals. In Shia Islam women teachers were mullahs and some achieved high levels of learning like their males counterparts. 

A depiction of Rabia and a Sufi prayer.

Song Dynasty China Beauty Standards: 960-1270

     Renowned as the "Golden Age" of China, the Song Dynasty grew along with Confucianism ideology. Although during the Tang dynasty, women were much more equal to mean, now the Song dynasty saw another rise in patriarchal society and expectations of women shifted. Simua Hang, a Song dynasty historian wrote, The boy leads the girl, the girl follows the boy; the duty of husbands to be resolute and wives to be docile begins with this." (Ways of the World pg 281)  Men were seen as to be knowledgeable, pursuing the arts of calligraphy, poetry, scholarship etc. Women, on the other hand, were seen as weak and delicate. A prime example of this was foot binding that began during the Song dynasty. Thought to begin with dancers, foot binding was a common practice where young girl's feet were wrapped and usually would break bones. The process was very painful, but evolved into a trend throughout China and into a beauty statement. This reflected the delicate nature women were expected to uphold in society, when reality is it was a very painful process that supposedly "delicate women" endured. Today, we can see similar ideas of how these gender roles have shaped society, things such as the corset were meant to accent the waist of a young woman, but in the process of looking delicate the young woman suffered through extreme pain in order to meet beauty standards. 

This diagram depicts the structure of a foot after it has been bound.

A typical shoe used for foot binding in order to "accent" the foot binding.  

Pacific Oceanic people: 500 BCE - 1200 CE

     Composed of numerous island societies, Oceanic people differed in culture and gender roles. Separated into chiefdoms, each society had variations of centralized authority. Melanesia, for example, had designated "big men" who were influential in decision making and held authority. With a more patriarchal society, like Melanesia, women's role were subordinate to men. Women's work was heavily involved in food production. While in areas like Polynesia, women held high status and worked more with domestic materials like clothing in mats. Across Oceania, women were seen as dangerous and polluting during menstruation and would even be isolated during this time and also during child birth. This could be linked to how society views women's periods as taboo even to this day.

A modern group of Polynesian people dancing 

Bantu Africa: 300-900 BCE

     Among the many societies outside of the wave of second civilizations was the Bantu speaking people of Africa. The Bantu was a movement of people that spread culture, traditions, language, and technology across Africa. With little formal political system, the Bantu speaking people operated differently than the major second wave civilizations. One example of this was in gender systems. Far less patriarchal than other societies at the time, the Luba people had male rulers who formed alliances with females who were thought to contain the spirit of the king and revered as powerful. Women were thought of as strong and roles were seen as "separate but equal." Across south-central Africa gender roles were similar to those in the paleolithic era, women associated with domestic work and men with hunting. Today, Bantu speaking people are still spread across Africa.

Painting of a Bantu society

Daoism, a counter to Confucianism: 5-6th century

    Unlike Confucianism, Daoism emphasized spontaneity and look towards nature. "Confucius focused on the world of human relationships, the Daoists turned the spotlight on the immense realm of nature and its mysterious unfolding patterns." (Ways of the World pg 154)  Daoist advocated for this balance and equality in nature, as well as between gender. Family was still high values, but the roles between men and women was much more equal and non patriarchal. Instead, the two sexes compliment and balance each other. The symbol used in Daoism, the Yin and Yang,  shows this. Half black and half white, the two halves balance each other and shows the "unity of opposites" as together they form a whole. The Yin, the black, represents feminine energy, winter and fall, water among other things. The Yang, the white, represents in contrast the male energy, summer and spring, passion etc. The example of balance of gender and focus of equality is black and white compared to Confucianism. 

This picture of the Yin and Yang gives more meanings to each side